H2 Physics

Start here for GCE A Level Physics (9478 H2): topic hubs in syllabus order, lesson notes, Paper 4 practical hub, formula list, and quizzes.

GCE A-Level H2 Physics 2027
9478 · Singapore-Cambridge A-Level
18 topics

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This course is for 9478 H2 Physics students who want a clear route from understanding each topic to timed exam performance. Each topic hub takes you through the model and its assumptions, worked reasoning, then practice of the same skill.

Your saved H2 progress stays separate from the H1 and H3 courses.

New to H2 Physics? Start with Quantities and Measurement and work through the topics in order. If you already know your weak topic, go straight to it.

Learning goals

Use SI quantities, units, prefixes and dimensional analysis.
Estimate physical quantities and check the reasonableness of results.
Assess random, systematic and propagated uncertainties.
Resolve, add and subtract coplanar vectors.
Explain inertia and momentum, then apply Newton's laws using free-body diagrams.
Describe normal, frictional, buoyant and viscous forces qualitatively.
Apply Hooke's law within the limit of proportionality.
Apply moments, couples and force-and-torque equilibrium using free-body diagrams and vector triangles.
show an understanding that the weight of a body may be taken as acting at a single point known as its centre of gravity
apply the principle of moments to new situations or to solve related problems
Interpret position, displacement, velocity and acceleration using equations and graphs.
Derive the uniformly accelerated motion equations from the definitions of velocity and acceleration.
Derive and apply uniformly accelerated motion equations with a stated sign convention.
Track energy stores and transfers, then apply conservation of energy.
Define work and derive and apply the kinetic-energy relationship.
Derive Eₖ = ½mv² from the definition of work done by a force and the uniformly accelerated motion equations.
Represent fields and relate work done by a field to potential-energy change.
Draw field-line representations of uniform and radial gravitational and electric fields.
Use force–extension graphs to determine elastic potential energy.
Apply power, mechanical power and efficiency relationships.
Relate weight and gravitational potential energy changes in a uniform gravitational field.
Analyse projectile motion by separating perpendicular components.
Explain falling motion with air resistance using forces, energy and terminal velocity.
Use impulse and momentum conservation in one-dimensional elastic and inelastic collisions.
Express angular displacement in radians and use s = rθ.
Relate angular velocity, period, frequency and tangential speed using v = rω.
Explain and apply centripetal acceleration and resultant-force relationships.
Apply Newton's law of gravitation to point and spherical masses.
Derive and apply gravitational field strength, including the near-surface model.
Derive the gravitational field strength due to a point mass from Newton's law of gravitation and the definition of field strength.
Relate gravitational potential, potential energy and field gradient.
Analyse escape speed using conservation of energy.
Analyse circular gravitational orbits and geostationary satellite conditions.
Use oscillation quantities and describe free oscillations and their investigation.
Relate displacement, velocity, acceleration and phase in simple harmonic motion.
Identify and analyse simple harmonic motion using its defining equation and sinusoidal solutions.
Describe kinetic–potential energy interchange in ideal simple harmonic motion.
Compare light, critical and heavy damping and explain critical-damping applications.
Distinguish free and forced oscillations, natural frequency and driving frequency.
Interpret resonance response curves, damping effects and practical applications.
Describe wave models, use wave quantities and interpret wave graphs in space and time.
Relate phase difference to separations in time and position.
Use wave intensity, amplitude and inverse-square relationships with their assumptions.
Explain polarisation and apply Malus’ law to amplitude and intensity.
Apply the principle of superposition to resultant displacement.
Explain standing-wave formation, nodes, antinodes and energy transfer.
Apply boundary conditions to standing waves on stretched strings.
Analyse displacement and pressure patterns in resonant air columns and determine sound wavelength.
Explain single-aperture diffraction and apply first-minimum and Rayleigh criteria.
Explain coherent two-source interference using phase and path difference.
Analyse Young double-slit interference and its small-angle assumptions.
Use diffraction gratings to analyse principal maxima and determine wavelength.
Use thermodynamic temperature and convert between Celsius and kelvin.
Use ideal-gas equations with particles, moles and SI units.
Apply the kinetic model to gas pressure and mean translational kinetic energy.
Derive pV = ⅓Nm⟨c²⟩ from the definition of pressure and a one-dimensional model of molecular collisions extended to three dimensions.
Relate microscopic energy, internal energy and thermal equilibrium.
Apply work conventions and the zeroth and first laws of thermodynamics.
Define and use heat capacity and specific heat capacity in energy balances.
Define and use specific latent heat in phase-change energy balances.
Apply Coulomb's law to the force between point charges.
Define electric field strength and calculate resultant fields due to point charges.
Define electric potential and calculate potential due to point charges.
Relate electric potential, potential energy and work for systems of point charges.
Use the negative potential gradient and relate equipotentials to field lines.
Calculate field strength and force in uniform electric fields.
Analyse charged-particle motion in uniform electric fields.
Apply capacitance and capacitor-energy relationships.
Relate current to charge flow, number density and drift velocity.
Apply potential difference, e.m.f. and electrical power relationships.
Represent sinusoidal a.c. and use peak and r.m.s. values.
Analyse mean power in resistive a.c. loads and half-wave rectification.
Recall circuit symbols and draw or interpret circuit diagrams.
Draw circuit diagrams containing sources, switches, resistors, meters, lamps, thermistors, light-dependent resistors and diodes.
Apply resistance and resistivity, interpret I–V characteristics and explain temperature effects.
Analyse e.m.f., terminal potential difference and internal resistance in real sources.
Analyse series, parallel and potential-divider resistor networks.
Combine capacitors in series and parallel.
Analyse charging and discharging in RC circuits using the time constant.
Calculate and represent magnetic fields produced by currents.
Sketch magnetic field lines due to currents in a long straight wire, a flat circular coil and a long solenoid.
Analyse forces on current-carrying conductors, current balances and interactions between parallel currents.
Analyse forces and paths of moving charges in uniform fields.
Apply crossed electric and magnetic fields to velocity selection.
Use magnetic flux and flux-linkage relationships.
Apply Faraday's and Lenz's laws to induced e.m.f. and direction.
Explain simple applications of electromagnetic induction, including motional e.m.f. and eddy currents.
Explain simple iron-core transformer operation and apply ideal transformer ratios.
Use photon energy and momentum and analyse the photoelectric effect.
Apply de Broglie wavelength and wave-particle evidence.
Interpret wavefunctions, probability density and superposition.
Apply uncertainty and infinite-square-well energy quantisation.
Analyse atomic energy levels and emission or absorption spectra.
Interpret nuclear structure, isotopes and Rutherford scattering.
Analyse random radioactive decay, activity, decay constant and half-life.
Relate binding energy per nucleon to fission, fusion, applications and hazards.
Apply conservation laws to nuclear equations and beta decay, including antineutrino evidence.
Use mass-energy equivalence, mass defect and binding energy.
Use techniques and apparatus safely and effectively, and make and record precise observations and measurements
Analyse practical data, graphs, gradients and intercepts
Evaluate practical limitations and propose specific improvements
Plan a practical investigation with controlled variables and a workable method

Syllabus statements covered

recall and use the following SI base quantities and their units: mass (kg), length (m), time (s), current (A), temperature (K), amount of substance (mol)
recall and use the following prefixes and their symbols to indicate decimal sub-multiples or multiples of both base and derived units: pico (p), nano (n), micro (μ), milli (m), centi (c), deci (d), kilo (k), mega (M), giga (G), tera (T)
express derived units as products or quotients of the SI base units and use the named units listed in ‘Summary of Key Quantities, Symbols and Units’ as appropriate
use SI base units to check the homogeneity of physical equations
make reasonable estimates of physical quantities included within the syllabus
show an understanding of the distinction between random errors and systematic errors (including zero error) which limit precision and accuracy
assess the uncertainty in derived quantities by adding absolute or relative (i.e. fractional or percentage) uncertainties or by numerical substitution (rigorous statistical treatment is not required)
distinguish between scalar and vector quantities, and give examples of each
add and subtract coplanar vectors
represent a vector as two perpendicular components
describe the forces on a mass, charge and current-carrying conductor in gravitational, electric and magnetic fields, as appropriate
show a qualitative understanding of forces including normal force, buoyant force (upthrust), frictional force and viscous force, e.g. air resistance. (knowledge of the concepts of coefficients of friction and viscosity is not required)
recall and apply Hooke’s law (F = kx, where k is the force constant) to new situations or to solve related problems
define and apply the moment of a force and the torque of a couple
show an understanding that a couple is a pair of forces which tends to produce rotation only
show an understanding that the weight of a body may be taken as acting at a single point known as its centre of gravity
apply the principle of moments to new situations or to solve related problems
show an understanding that, when there is no resultant force and no resultant torque, a system is in equilibrium
use free-body diagrams and vector triangles to represent forces on bodies that are in rotational and translational equilibrium
show an understanding of and use the terms position, distance, displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration
use graphical methods to represent distance, displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration
identify and use the physical quantities from the gradients of position–time or displacement–time graphs and areas under and gradients of velocity–time graphs, including cases of non-uniform acceleration
derive, from the definitions of velocity and acceleration, equations which represent uniformly accelerated motion in a straight line
solve problems using equations which represent uniformly accelerated motion in a straight line, e.g. for bodies falling vertically without air resistance in a uniform gravitational field
show an understanding that mass is the property of a body which resists change in motion (inertia)
define and use linear momentum as the product of mass and velocity
state and apply each of Newton’s laws of motion: 1st law: a body at rest will stay at rest, and a body in motion will continue to move at constant velocity, unless acted on by a resultant external force; 2nd law: the rate of change of momentum of a body is (directly) proportional to the resultant force acting on the body and is in the same direction as the resultant force; 3rd law: the force exerted by one body on a second body is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force simultaneously exerted by the second body on the first body
recall the relationship resultant force F = ma, for a body of constant mass, and use this to solve problems
show an understanding that physical systems can store energy, and that energy can be transferred from one store to another
give examples of different energy stores and energy transfers, and apply the principle of conservation of energy to solve problems
show an understanding that work is a mechanical transfer of energy, and define and use work done by a force as the product of the force and displacement in the direction of the force
derive, from the definition of work done by a force and the equations for uniformly accelerated motion in a straight line, the equation Eₖ = ½mv²
recall and use the equation Eₖ = ½mv² to solve problems
show an understanding of the concept of a field as a region of space in which bodies may experience a force associated with the field
define gravitational field strength at a point as the gravitational force per unit mass on a mass placed at that point, and define electric field strength at a point as the electric force per unit charge on a positive charge placed at that point
represent gravitational fields and electric fields by means of field lines (e.g. for uniform and radial field patterns), and show an understanding of the relationship between equipotential surfaces and field lines
show an understanding that the force on a mass in a gravitational field (or the force on a charge in an electric field) acts along the field lines, and the work done by the field in moving the mass (or charge) is equal to the negative of the change in potential energy
distinguish between gravitational potential energy, electric potential energy and elastic potential energy
recall that the elastic potential energy stored in a deformed material is given by the area under its force–extension graph and use this to solve problems
define power as the rate of energy transfer
show an understanding that mechanical power is the product of a force and velocity in the direction of the force
show an appreciation for the implications of energy losses in practical devices and solve problems using the concept of efficiency of an energy transfer as the ratio of useful energy output to total energy input
describe and use the concept of weight as the force experienced by a mass in a gravitational field
describe and explain motion due to a uniform velocity in one direction and a uniform acceleration in a perpendicular direction
derive, from the definition of work done by a force, the equation ΔEₚ = mgΔh for gravitational potential energy changes in a uniform gravitational field (e.g. near the Earth’s surface)
recall and use the equation ΔEₚ = mgΔh to solve problems
describe qualitatively, with reference to forces and energy, the motion of bodies falling in a uniform gravitational field with air resistance, including the phenomenon of terminal velocity
recall that impulse is given by the area under the force–time graph for a body and use this to solve problems
state the principle of conservation of momentum
apply the principle of conservation of momentum to solve simple problems including inelastic and (perfectly) elastic interactions between two bodies in one dimension (knowledge of the concept of coefficient of restitution is not required)
show an understanding that, for a (perfectly) elastic collision between two bodies, the relative speed of approach is equal to the relative speed of separation
show an understanding that, whilst the momentum of a closed system is always conserved in interactions between bodies, some change in kinetic energy usually takes place
express angular displacement in radians
show an understanding of and use the concept of angular velocity
recall and use v = rω to solve problems
show an understanding of centripetal acceleration in the case of uniform motion in a circle, and qualitatively describe motion in a curved path (arc) as due to a resultant force that is both perpendicular to the motion and centripetal in direction
recall and use centripetal acceleration a = rω², and a = v²/r to solve problems
recall and use F = mrω², and F = mv²/r to solve problems
recall and use Newton’s law of gravitation in the form F = Gm₁m₂/r²
derive, from Newton’s law of gravitation and the definition of gravitational field strength, the field strength due to a point mass, g = GM/r²
recall and use g = GM/r² for the gravitational field strength due to a point mass to solve problems
show an understanding that near the surface of the Earth, gravitational field strength is approximately constant and equal to the acceleration of free fall
define gravitational potential at a point as the work done per unit mass by an external force in bringing a small test mass from infinity to that point
solve problems using the equation φ = −GM/r for the gravitational potential in the field due to a point mass
show an understanding that that the gravitational potential energy of a system of two point masses is Uᴳ = −GMm/r
recall that gravitational field strength at a point is equal to the negative potential gradient at that point and use this to solve problems
analyse problems related to escape velocity by considering energy stores and transfers
analyse circular orbits in inverse square law fields by relating the gravitational force to the centripetal acceleration it causes
show an understanding of satellites in geostationary orbit and their applications
describe simple examples of free oscillations, where particles periodically return to an equilibrium position without gaining energy from or losing energy to the environment
investigate the motion of an oscillator using experimental and graphical methods
show an understanding of and use the terms amplitude, period, frequency, angular frequency, phase and phase difference and express the period in terms of both frequency and angular frequency
show an understanding that a = −ω²x is the defining equation of simple harmonic motion, where acceleration is (directly) proportional to displacement from an equilibrium position and acceleration is always directed towards the equilibrium position
recognise and use x = x₀ sin ωt as a solution to the equation a = −ω²x
recognise and use the equations v = v₀ cos ωt and v = ±ω√(x₀² − x²)
describe, with graphical illustrations, the relationships between displacement, velocity and acceleration during simple harmonic motion
describe the interchange between kinetic and potential energy during simple harmonic motion
describe practical examples of damped oscillations, with particular reference to the effects of the degree of damping (light/under, critical, heavy/over), and to the importance of critical damping in applications such as a car suspension system
describe graphically how the amplitude of a forced oscillation changes with driving frequency, resulting in maximum amplitude at resonance when the driving frequency is close to or at the natural frequency of the system
show a qualitative understanding of the effects of damping on the frequency response and sharpness of the resonance
describe practical examples of forced oscillations and resonance, and show an appreciation that there are some circumstances in which resonance is useful, and other circumstances in which resonance should be avoided
show an understanding that mechanical waves involve the oscillations of particles within a material medium, such as a string or a fluid, and electromagnetic waves involve the oscillations of electromagnetic fields in space and time
show an understanding of and use the terms displacement, amplitude, period, frequency, phase, phase difference, wavelength and speed
deduce, from the definitions of speed, frequency and wavelength, the equation v = fλ
recall and use the equation v = fλ
analyse and interpret graphical representations of transverse and longitudinal waves with respect to variations in time and position (space)
show an understanding that energy is transferred due to a progressive wave without matter being transferred
recall and use the term intensity as the power transferred (radiated) by a wave per unit area, and the relationship intensity ∝ (amplitude)² for a progressive wave
show an understanding of and apply the concept, that the intensity of a wave from a point source and travelling without loss of energy obeys an inverse square law to solve problems
show an understanding that polarisation is a phenomenon associated with transverse waves
recall and use Malus’ law (intensity ∝ cos²θ) to calculate the amplitude and intensity of a plane-polarised electromagnetic wave after transmission through a polarising filter
explain and use the principle of superposition in simple applications
show an understanding of experiments which demonstrate standing (stationary) waves using microwaves, stretched strings and air columns
explain the formation of a standing (stationary) wave using a graphical method, and identify nodes and antinodes, differentiating between pressure and displacement nodes and antinodes for sound waves
determine the wavelength of sound using standing (stationary) waves
show an understanding of the terms diffraction, interference, coherence, phase difference and path difference
show an understanding of phenomena which demonstrate two-source interference using water waves, sound waves, light and microwaves
show an understanding of the conditions required for two-source interference fringes to be observed
recall and use the equation ax/D = λ to solve problems for double-slit interference, where a is the slit separation and x is the fringe separation
recall and use the equation a sin θ = nλ to solve problems involving the principal maxima of a diffraction grating, where a is the slit separation
describe the use of a diffraction grating to determine the wavelength of light (knowledge of the structure and use of a spectrometer is not required)
show an understanding of phenomena which demonstrate diffraction through a single slit or aperture, or across an edge, such as the diffraction of water waves in a ripple tank with both a wide gap and a narrow gap, or the diffraction of sound waves from loudspeakers or around corners
recall and use the equation b sin θ = λ to solve problems involving the positions of the first minima for diffraction through a single slit of width b
recall and use the Rayleigh criterion θ ≈ λ/b for the resolving power of a single aperture, where b is the width of the aperture
show an understanding that a thermodynamic scale of temperature has an absolute zero and is independent of the property of any particular substance
convert temperatures measured in degrees Celsius to kelvin: T/K = T/°C + 273.15
recall and use the equation of state for an ideal gas expressed as pV = NkT, where N is the number of particles
state that one mole of any substance contains 6.02 × 10²³ particles, and use the Avogadro constant Nₐ = 6.02 × 10²³ mol⁻¹ as well as the relationship Nk = nR between the Boltzmann constant and the molar gas constant, where n is the number of moles and N = nNₐ
state the basic assumptions of the kinetic theory of gases
explain how the random motion of gas particles exerts mechanical pressure and hence derive, using the definition of pressure as force per unit area, the relationship pV = ⅓Nm⟨c²⟩ (a simple model considering one-dimensional collisions and then extending to three dimensions using ⟨cₓ²⟩ = ⅓⟨c²⟩ is sufficient)
recall and use the relationship that the mean translational kinetic energy of a particle of an ideal gas is (directly) proportional to the thermodynamic temperature (i.e. ½m⟨c²⟩ = ³⁄₂kT) to solve problems
show an understanding that the macroscopic state of a system determines the internal energy of the system, and that internal energy can be expressed as the sum of a random distribution of microscopic kinetic and potential energies associated with the particles of the system
show an understanding that the thermodynamic temperature of a system is (directly) proportional to the mean microscopic kinetic energy of particles
show an understanding that when two systems are placed in thermal contact, energy is transferred (by heating) from the system at higher temperature to the system at lower temperature, until they reach the same temperature and achieve thermal equilibrium (i.e. no net energy transfer)
show an understanding of the difference between the work done by a gas and the work done on a gas, and calculate the work done by a gas in expanding against a constant external pressure: W = pΔV
recall and apply the zeroth law of thermodynamics that if two systems are both in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other
recall and apply the first law of thermodynamics, ΔU = Q + W, that the increase in internal energy of a system is equal to the sum of the energy transferred to the system by heating and the work done on the system
define and use the concepts of specific heat capacity and specific latent heat
recall and use Coulomb’s law in the form F = Q₁Q₂/(4πε₀r²) for the electric force between two point charges in free space or air
recall and use E = Q/(4πε₀r²) for the electric field strength due to a point charge, in free space or air, to solve problems
define electric potential at a point as the work done per unit charge by an external force in bringing a small positive test charge from infinity to that point
use the equation V = Q/(4πε₀r) for the electric potential in the field due to a point charge, in free space or air
show an understanding that the electric potential energy of a system of two point charges is Uᴱ = Q₁Q₂/(4πε₀r)
recall that electric field strength at a point is equal to the negative potential gradient at that point and use this to solve problems
calculate the field strength of the uniform electric field between charged parallel plates in terms of the potential difference and plate separation
calculate the force on a charge in a uniform electric field
describe the effect of a uniform electric field on the motion of a charged particle
define capacitance as the ratio of the charge stored to the potential difference and use C = Q/V to solve problems
recall that the electric potential energy stored in a capacitor is given by the area under the graph of potential difference against charge stored, and use this and the equations U = ½QV, U = ½Q²/C and U = ½CV² to solve problems
show an understanding that electric current is the rate of flow of charge and solve problems using I = Q/t
derive and use the equation I = nAvq for a current-carrying conductor, where n is the number density of charge carriers and v is the drift velocity
recall and solve problems using the equation for potential difference in terms of electrical work done per unit charge, V = W/Q
recall and solve problems using the equations for electrical power P = VI, P = I²R and P = V²/R
distinguish between electromotive force (e.m.f.) and potential difference (p.d.) using energy considerations
show an understanding of and use the terms period, frequency, peak value and root-mean-square (r.m.s.) value as applied to an alternating current or voltage
represent a sinusoidal alternating current or voltage by an equation of the form x = x₀ sin ωt
deduce that the mean power in a resistive load is half the maximum (peak) power for a sinusoidal alternating current
distinguish between r.m.s. and peak values, and recall and use Iᵣₘₛ = I₀/√2 and Vᵣₘₛ = V₀/√2 for the sinusoidal case
explain the use of a single diode for the half-wave rectification of an alternating current
recall and use appropriate circuit symbols
draw and interpret circuit diagrams containing sources, switches, resistors (fixed and variable), ammeters, voltmeters, lamps, thermistors, light-dependent resistors, diodes, capacitors and any other type of component referred to in the syllabus
define the resistance of a circuit component as the ratio of the potential difference across the component to the current in it, and solve problems using the equation V = IR
recall and solve problems using the equation relating resistance to resistivity, length and cross-sectional area, R = ρl/A
sketch and interpret the I–V characteristics of various electrical components in a d.c. circuit, such as an ohmic resistor, a semiconductor diode, a filament lamp and a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor
explain the temperature dependence of the resistivity of typical metals (e.g. in a filament lamp) and semiconductors (e.g. in an NTC thermistor) in terms of the drift velocity and number density of charge carriers respectively
show an understanding of the effects of the internal resistance of a source of e.m.f. on the terminal potential difference and output power
solve problems using the formula for the combined resistance of two or more resistors in series
solve problems using the formula for the combined resistance of two or more resistors in parallel
solve problems involving series and parallel arrangements of resistors for one source of e.m.f., including potential divider circuits which may involve NTC thermistors and light-dependent resistors
solve problems using the formulae for the combined capacitance of two or more capacitors in series and in parallel
describe and represent the variation with time, of quantities like current, charge and potential difference, for a capacitor that is charging or discharging through a resistor, using equations of the form x = x₀e⁻ᵗ⁄τ or x = x₀[1 − e⁻ᵗ⁄τ], where τ = RC is the time constant
show an understanding that a magnetic field is an example of a field of force produced either by current-carrying conductors or by permanent magnets
sketch magnetic field lines due to currents in a long straight wire, a flat circular coil and a long solenoid
use B = μ₀I/(2πd), B = μ₀NI/(2r) and B = μ₀nI for the magnetic flux densities of the fields due to currents in a long straight wire, a flat circular coil and a long solenoid respectively
show an understanding that the magnetic field due to a solenoid may be influenced by the presence of a ferrous core
show an understanding that a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field might experience a force
recall and solve problems using the equation F = BIl sin θ, with directions as interpreted by Fleming’s left-hand rule
define magnetic flux density as the force acting per unit current per unit length on a conductor placed perpendicular to the magnetic field
show an understanding of how the force on a current-carrying conductor can be used to measure the magnetic flux density of a magnetic field using a current balance
explain the forces between current-carrying conductors and predict the direction of the forces
predict the direction of the force on a charge moving in a uniform magnetic field
recall and solve problems using the equation F = BQv sin θ
describe and analyse deflections of beams of charged particles by uniform electric fields and uniform magnetic fields
explain how perpendicular electric and magnetic fields can be used in velocity selection for charged particles
define magnetic flux as the product of magnetic flux density and the cross-sectional area perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic flux density
show an understanding of and use the concept of magnetic flux linkage
recall and use Φ = BA and NΦ = NBA to solve problems, where N is the number of turns
infer from appropriate experiments on electromagnetic induction: (i) that a changing magnetic flux can induce an e.m.f.; (ii) that the direction of the induced e.m.f. opposes the change producing it; (iii) the factors affecting the magnitude of the induced e.m.f.
recall and solve problems using Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction and Lenz’s law
explain simple applications of electromagnetic induction
show an understanding of the principle of operation of a simple iron-core transformer and recall and solve problems using Nₛ/Nₚ = Vₛ/Vₚ = Iₚ/Iₛ for an ideal transformer
show an understanding that the existence of a threshold frequency in the photoelectric effect provides evidence that supports the particulate nature of electromagnetic radiation while phenomena such as interference and diffraction provide evidence that supports its wave nature
state that a photon is a quantum of electromagnetic radiation, and recall and use the equation E = hf for the energy of a photon to solve problems, where h is the Planck constant
show an understanding that while a photon is massless, it has a momentum given by p = E/c and p = h/λ, where c is the speed of light in free space
show an understanding that electron diffraction and double-slit interference of single particles provide evidence that supports the wave nature of particles
recall and use the equation λ = h/p for the de Broglie wavelength to solve problems
show an understanding that the state of a particle can be represented as a wavefunction ψ, e.g. for an electron cloud in an atom, and that the square of the wavefunction amplitude |ψ|² is the probability density function (including calculation of normalisation factors for square and sinusoidal wavefunctions)
show an understanding that the principle of superposition applies to the wavefunctions describing a particle’s position, leading to standing wave solutions for a particle in a box and phenomena such as single-particle interference in double-slit experiments
show an understanding that the Heisenberg position-momentum uncertainty principle ΔxΔp ≳ h relates to the necessity of a spread of momenta for localised particles, and apply this to solve problems
show an understanding of standing wave solutions ψₙ for the wavefunction of a particle in a one-dimensional infinite square well potential
solve problems using Eₙ = h²n²/(8mL²) for the allowed energy levels of a particle of mass m in a one-dimensional infinite square well of width L
show an understanding of the existence of discrete electronic energy levels for the electron’s wavefunction in isolated atoms (e.g. atomic hydrogen) and deduce how this leads to the observation of spectral lines
distinguish between emission and absorption line spectra
solve problems involving photon absorption or emission during atomic energy level transitions
infer from the results of the Rutherford α-particle scattering experiment the existence and small size of the atomic nucleus
distinguish between nucleon number (mass number) and proton number (atomic number)
show an understanding that an element can exist in various isotopic forms, each with a different number of neutrons in the nucleus, and use the notation ᴬZX for the representation of nuclides
show an understanding of the spontaneous and random nature of nuclear decay
infer the random nature of radioactive decay from the fluctuations in count rate
show an understanding of the origin and significance of background radiation
show an understanding of the nature and properties of α, β and γ radiations (knowledge of positron emission is not required)
define the terms activity and decay constant and recall and solve problems using the equation A = λN
infer and sketch the exponential nature of radioactive decay and solve problems using the relationship x = x₀e⁻λᵗ where x could represent activity, number of undecayed particles or received count rate
define and use half-life as the time taken for a quantity x to reduce to half its initial value
solve problems using the relation λ = ln 2/t½
discuss qualitatively the applications (e.g. medical and industrial uses) and hazards of radioactivity based on: (i) half-life of radioactive materials; (ii) penetrating abilities and ionising effects of radioactive emissions
represent simple nuclear reactions by nuclear equations of the form ¹⁴₇N + ⁴₂He → ¹⁷₈O + ¹₁H
state and apply to problem solving the concept that nucleon number, charge and mass-energy are all conserved in nuclear processes
show an understanding of how the conservation laws for energy and momentum in β decay were used to predict the existence of the (anti)neutrino (knowledge of the antineutrino and the zoo of particles is not required)
show an understanding of the concept of mass defect
recall and apply the equivalence between energy and mass as represented by E = mc² to solve problems
show an understanding of the concept of nuclear binding energy and its relation to mass defect
sketch the variation of binding energy per nucleon with nucleon number
explain the relevance of binding energy per nucleon to nuclear fusion and to nuclear fission
follow a detailed set or sequence of instructions and use techniques, apparatus and materials safely and effectively
make, record and present observations and measurements with due regard for precision and accuracy
interpret and evaluate observations and experimental data
identify a problem and design and plan investigations
evaluate methods and techniques and suggest possible improvements

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Course guides

Practical skills

Work on practical skills alongside the theory topics. A Level Physics Practical Skills covers planning, measurements and data analysis using spreadsheets.

Revision guides

Problem-solving guide

Going further

Use the simulation library when a graph or changing variable is the main difficulty.
Semiconductors and Lasers are optional enrichment outside the syllabus.
If the prerequisite algebra or mechanics still needs work, return to O-Level foundations first.

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